Successional agroforestry systems enhance environmental sustainability in cacao production: Evidence from a long-term trial

This study evaluates the environmental and productive performance of different cacao production systems over a 12-year period using a comprehensive energy–water–emissions–food (EWEF) nexus framework. While monoculture systems achieve higher cocoa yields, diversified agroforestry systems—particularly successional agroforests—produce substantially more total food per hectare, use resources more efficiently, and generate lower environmental impacts. The results show that agroforestry systems improve water and energy efficiency, enhance nutritional output, and maintain comparable cacao yields, highlighting their potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional monoculture production.